Saturday, September 7, 2019
Imposing consumption tax on Saudi consumers and its contribution in promoting economic growth Essay Example for Free
Imposing consumption tax on Saudi consumers and its contribution in promoting economic growth Essay Introduction Saudi economy mostly relies on oil industry and its government has much control over natural resources and main economic activities in the land.  Ultimately, the economy of Saudi is centrally planned and therefore has free market economy. As it can be affirmed, oil industry contributes to approximately 45% of the total budget revenue hence making it imperative to the growth of the country. Till now, Saudi Arabia does not think that there is any need for consumption tax however, the country may face many problems in the future what may affect the economy if the oil dry out.            A recent analysis from Citigroup has raised the alarming possibility that Saudi Arabia might become a net oil importer by 2030[Could Saudi Arabia’s Oil Exports Dry Up?, 2012]. However, in order to Find a Solutions to contribute in raising Saudi Arabia economy for long run, and Focusing in another source rather than oil.  In order to maintain economic stability, we want to study the possibility of imposing consumption tax beside zakat on Saudi consumers and how it will contribute in promoting economic growth. Basic concept According to the dictionary, Zakat iscalled (Islamic tax) or (religious tax), it is an annual tax on Muslims comprising percentages of personal income of every kind to aid the poor in the Muslim community.[zakat] Research aim The research aim is to determine the possibility of imposing consumption tax on Saudi consumers beside zakat and how it will contribute in promoting economic growth Sub problems; 1.     How consumption tax contributes in promoting economic growth. A)    Why consumption tax. B)    Mechanism of economic growth. C)    Identify mechanism of promoting economic growth by consumption tax. 2.   The possibility of imposing consumption tax on Saudi consumer. A)   Analyze tax system for promoting economic growth. B)   Analyze Zakat system for promoting economic growth. C)   Compare (a) and (b) to determine the possibility of imposing consumption tax (the importance or how valuable is the consumption tax). 3.    Determine the possibility of using consumption tax for promoting economic growth of Saudi Arabia. Research Objectives As noted in the above information, the main aim or purpose of conducting this research is to investigate the possibility of imposing consumption tax on Saudi consumers beside zakat and how it will contribute in promoting economic growth. The following information provides the objectives and research questions for the study. Ø     To determine the importance of tax particularly in promoting the growth of economy Ø    To analyze all best and possible means of imposing consumption tax on Saudi consumer Ø    To determine the possibility of using consumption tax for promoting economic growth of Saudi Arabia Hypothesis Various studies conducted on consumption tax have revealed that consumption tax has a major effect on the country’s economic activities which can greatly affect economic growth, so in this paper we investigate how consumption tax contributes in promoting economic growth. We hypothesized that imposing consumption tax contributes in promoting the growth of Saudi Arabia’s economy. We also hypothesized that the difference between tax system and zakat system will contribute in determine the importance of the consumption tax. Literature review Essentially, previous research indicates a close relationship between introduction of consumption tax and economic growth in a country. Many economists argue that imposing a consumption tax implies increase in government revenue and thus increase in the country GDP which is essential in reflecting the country’s economic growth. There are limited studies tried to identify the relationship between tax structures and economic growth, Here is some of the related literature:            Arnold, J. (2008) has focused in studying and analyzing  the relationship between tax structures and economic growth by enteringindicators of the tax structure into a set of panel growth regressions for 21 OECD countries; he found the following results: 1.                 Income taxes are associated with significantly lower economic growth and lower levels of GDP per capita than consumption tax and property tax. 2.                 Respectively, property taxes, and particularly recurrent taxes on immovable property, then consumption taxassociated with the highest levels of GDP per capita. Therefore, these taxes are the most growth friendly taxes in economic growth. 3.                 Corporate income taxes have morenegative effects on GDPthan personal income tax. In general, the relationship between the income taxes and growth is negative relation. 4.                 The progressivity of income taxes and growth are negatively related. Also, Widmalm (2001), Padovano and Galli (2002) studied the relationship between progressivity of income taxes and economic growth in 25 countries, they reached the same result, the progressivity of income taxes and economic growth are negatively related. Various studies conducted on consumption tax have revealed that consumption tax has a major effect on the country’s economic activities which can greatly affect economic growth. Brys (2010) in his book ‘OECD Tax Policy Studies Tax Policy Reform and Economic Growth’ outlines the various effects consumer tax can have on economic activities of a country.In the book, he states that consumer tax will affect employment and working hours, affect international trade and regulate the activities of the underground economy. Brys continues to state that differentiated consumer tax will encourage people to work, lead to a yield in environmental benefits and reduce inequalities in income. When all these factors are brought together, economic activities of a country are likely to be affected in various ways. Methodology Research approach A good research is the one that provides answers to the research questions, validity, objectivity, accuracy, and economy. A research design is the plan and structure of investigation to obtain answers to research questions. The study adopted a qualitative survey structure. Qualitative research is also adopted since it investigates the social constructivist paradigm and relies on the socially constructed reality nature.  It aims to fundamentally record, analyze as well as determine the significance and meaning of imposing consumption tax on Saudi consumers and its contribution in promoting economic growth. The approach is not initially based on any data to be compared but on the perceptions of those who have experience and knowledge based on consumption tax and its potential in enhancing economic growth of a country. The qualitative research approach here supports positivism whereby although there is no data to be compared as part of quantitative research, the fundamental construct of the research is based on a reality that cannot be changed. The type of this study requires to use qualitative research, in this study we will gathering data from the past studies related to our theme (about the effect of tax on economic growth and then, we will analyses this data And weight all the Pros and Cons, advantage and disadvantage of all type of taxes and decide which type is best for the growth of the economy. We will analyze both of tax system and zakat system and their relation with economic growth, then comparing both system and find the similarities and difference between them. Then study those differences and find solutions that may contribute in the economic growth of Saudi Arabia. Data analysis and discussion            The raw materials were collected in a systematically organized manner that facilitates the analysis. To permit qualitative analysis, the data received was edited to ensure completeness, consistency, and uniformity before being analyzed to make it meaningful information regarding the study theme which is implications of imposing consumption tax in Saudi Arabia. Collectively the data analyzed enables the study to establish the relationship of consumption tax and economic growth. References Brys, B., Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.(2010). Tax policy         reform and economic growth. Paris: OECD. Could Saudi Arabia’s Oil Exports Dry Up? (2012Ã¥ ¹ ´octoberæÅ"ˆ3æâ€" ¥). Ã¥ ‚ç… §Ã¥â€¦Ë†: nvesting daily:http://www.investingdaily.com/15734/could-saudi-arabias-oil-exports-dry-up almohainykhaledmohammed. (2003). The role of the tax in the process of economic and social development. Damascus University Journal , Volume 19 Issue II. zakat. (æâ€" ¥Ã¤ »ËœÃ¤ ¸ 明). Ã¥ ‚ç… §Ã¥â€¦Ë†: dictionary: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/zakat Arnold, J. (2008), â€Å"Do Tax Structures Affect Aggregate Economic Growth?: Empirical   Evidence from a Panel of OECD Countries†, OECD Economics Department        Working Papers, No. 643, OECD Publishing. Bleaney, M.F.; N. Gemmell and R. Kneller (2001), â€Å"Testing the Endogenous Growth      Model: Public Expenditure, Taxation and Growth Over the Long-Run†, Canadian           Journal of Economics, Vol. 34(1), pp. 36-57. Schwellnus, C. and J. Arnold (2008), â€Å"Do Corporate Taxes Reduce Productivity and Investment at the Firm Level? Cross-country Evidence from the Amadeus Dataset†, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, forthcoming.
Friday, September 6, 2019
Relationships between Satisfaction with Life Essay Example for Free
Relationships between Satisfaction with Life Essay Abstract            Satisfaction with life is a concept highly valued in today’s society. In an effort to understand mechanisms behind the life satisfaction, present study investigated the relationships between social network size, optimism and conscientiousness and the outcome variable, satisfaction with life. The four variables were measured through the use of a survey. Participants were students from California State University, Fullerton. A correlational analysis of the data showed a significant positive relationship between optimism, and conscientiousness and satisfaction with life. It was also found that individuals with large social network size were more satisfied than those with small social network size. These findings imply that improving levels of optimism and conscientiousness and increasing one’s social network can insure greater life satisfaction. Relationships between Satisfaction with Life, Social Network Size, Optimism, and Conscientiousness            Satisfaction with life is most often one of the greatest concerns of an individual’s life. There is a general belief that an inability to achieve satisfaction with one’s life indicates an unsuccessful life. Because of this socially generated drive for satisfaction with life, one is made to wonder. What factors are related to the experience of life satisfaction? What variables are good predictors of life satisfaction?            One suspected variable that would act as a good predictor of satisfaction with life is social network size. A social network refers to an individual’s link or relationship with other individuals. This link can cause certain social behavior to be explained (Mitchell, 1969). Quinn, Gavigan, and Franklin (1980) defined social networks to be the social units an individual is placed in contact with. Quinn et al. (1980) studied the effects of social network interaction on life satisfaction in older adults. The findings indicated that social network interaction was not a good predictor of satisfaction with life.            Another study conducted by Bowling, Farquhar, ands Browne (1991) indicated that social network size is a poor indicator of life satisfaction. The study involved the participation of two types of individuals – those who lived in rural neighborhoods and those who lived in urban neighborhoods. Bowling et al. (1991) noted larger reported social network sizes for individuals in the urban areas as opposed to those in the rural areas. Despite this difference in reported social network sizes, life satisfaction between the two groups was not found to be different. This may, however, have been a result of difference in the levels of interaction available to individuals residing in the two areas. The insignificant findings may have been a result of the inherent differences between neighborhoods and therefore not representative of the social network size of a given individual.            Optimism is a second variable deemed to be related to feelings of satisfaction with life. A greater sense of optimism allows one to maintain an outlook on life that allows for the consideration of the world as a generally positive place. Research exploring the life satisfaction felt by retired physicians showed that greater optimism resulted in a greater satisfaction with their life. (Austrom, Perkins, Damush, and Hendrie, 2003) In retired individuals, especially, optimism may be an essential variable for achieving life satisfaction as it may also be a coping mechanism to the sudden change in lifestyle for the said individuals. The retired physicians felt that the greatest challenge going against their satisfaction with life was in the loss of their professional roles, thus, optimism might have served as a form of mediation between the two stages of the transition. Having a positive outlook on the way their lives was going allowed these physicians to better accept the end of their professional careers and to look forward to the beginning of their retired life. The probable importance of optimism as a mediator was also evidenced by the fact that in the same study by Austrom et al. (2003) it was found that optimism didn’t play as significant a role in determining life satisfaction when it came to the physician’s wives. This may have been due to the fact that they did not need to maintain a positive outlook to boost a sudden change in life roles.            Optimism and not pessimism, which involves having a negative outlook on life, is found to be a greater predictor of life satisfaction. This was specifically found by a study conducted by Chang Sanna (2003). Thus in the present study, only the variable of optimism will be taken into consideration and not its counterpart, pessimism.            Another variable that may show a relationship with an individual’s satisfaction with life is the personality trait of conscientiousness. Conscientiousness has been investigated by many researchers in terms of how well it predicts an individual’s life satisfaction. This trait refers to an individual’s tendency to be organized, diligent and reliable in their behavior. (Chapman, Duberstein, and Lyness, 2007) Conscientiousness may have a role to play in satisfaction because conscientious individuals are able to have more mature defenses and are also able to have a quality of life that is considered by most to be above par as they are able to have more responsibility and control over their health, their social interactions, and their general well-being (Chapman et al, 2007). It may well be that the same link can be found between conscientiousness and life satisfaction. If higher levels of conscientiousness indicate higher quality of life, it may also indicate greater degree of satisfaction with life as a result of the same mechanisms.            A study by Lounsbury, Saudarga, Gibson, and Leong (2005) examined just this relationship. Through an inspection of the personality characteristics accounted for in the Big Five, it was found that conscientiousness along with extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness to experience account for 45% of total perceived life satisfaction. Is conscientiousness, then, as a variable independent of the other personality traits in the Big Five, significantly related to satisfaction with life?            The present study aims to investigate the relationships that exist between satisfaction with life and the three variables stated above: social network size, optimism, and conscientiousness. Based on the empirical evidence provided by past literature, it is predicted that satisfaction with life will be significantly correlated to optimism and conscientiousness. A greater level of optimism and conscientiousness in an individual will indicate a greater satisfaction with life. Also, social network size is hypothesized to have no significant difference on satisfaction with life. The last hypothesis is based on the findings of past literature. However, due to the questionable nature of past studies and how these measured social network against life satisfaction, the present study’s hypothesis may turn out to be negated. It is hypothesized, then, that the variables of optimism and conscientiousness will have a significant and direct relationship with satisfaction with life while that of social network size will have no significant difference on satisfaction with life. Methodology Participants            The participants of the study totaled 91 students, 23 (25.3%) of whom were male and 68(74.7%) of whom were female. (See Table 1 in Appendix for tabulated figures) All the participants were enrolled in Research Method in Psychology classes at the California State University, Fullerton. The ethnicity break down of the participants is the following: African American – 1.1%, Asian (Pacific Islander) – 3.3%, Caucasian – 49.5%, Hispanic – 27.5%, Middle Eastern – 2.2%, Southeast Asian – 2.2%, multiethnic – 11%. 3.3% of the participants reported to having other types of ethnicity. (See Table 2 in Appendix for tabulated figures) The range in ages of the participants was from 19 years to 46 years. The mean age was 23 years old. (See Table 3 in Appendix for tabulated figures) None of the participants received incentive for their participation. There were no extra credits or monetary compensations given in exchange for their contribution to the study. Materials or Measures            Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, Tellegen, 1988). The PANAS measures trait negative affect or the affective well being of the participants. It is composed of a 10-item scale designed to measure typical experiences of negative affect. Participants are able to rate the extent to which they experience certain mood states such as distressed, upset, scared, and irritable. They are able to do this through the indicators of a 5-point scale (very slightly or not at all, a little, moderately, quite a bit, extremely). The participants were asked to indicate to what extent they felt each feeling or emotion listed during the past two weeks from the time of the survey.            Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen Griffin, 1985) The SWLS is a global measure for subjective well-being and life satisfaction. Diener et al (1985) defined life satisfaction as a conscious cognitive judgment life. This entails an individual’s comparison of their own life experiences with a self-set standard. The scale is composed of 5 items and utilizes a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree).  The items of the test included statements such as â€Å"The conditions of my life are excellent†and â€Å"If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.†Possible total scores range from 5 to 35. A resulting score ranging from 5 to 19 signifies dissatisfaction while scores between 21-31 signify satisfaction.            Life Orientation Test (LOT-R; Scheier, Carver, Bridges, 1994) The LOT-R measures generalized optimism. The test is made up of 10 items. Participants will indicate the extent to which they agree with the 10 statements in the test through a 5-point Likert-type scale (0-strongly disagree to 4-strongly agree). The statements involved sentiments like â€Å"in uncertain times, I usually expect the best†. A participant can achieve a score from 0 to 24 with a higher score indicating greater levels of optimism.            Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donahue, Kentle, 1994) The BFI was used to assess the personalities of the participants with regards to the five aspects included in the big five namely extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. The BFI consists of 44 items that ask the participants to rank themselves on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1-disagree strongly to 5-agree strongly). The 44 items deal with different types of behavior related to the Big Five. For the present study, the BFI will be used to measure the variable of conscientiousness. BFI items related to conscientiousness included â€Å"perseveres until the task is finished†, â€Å"is a reliable worker†, and â€Å"does things efficiently†. Lubben Social Network Scale (LSNS-6; Lubben Gironda, 2003) The LSNS-6 is a test of a set of questions establishing ties with relatives and ties with non-relatives. Examples of these questions include â€Å"How many relatives do you see or hear from at least once a month?†and â€Å"How many friends do you see or hear from at least once a month? The participant chooses one of the options available for each question. These answers have corresponding points. Total scores of the participants may range from 0 to 30. A higher score indicates a higher level of social network. For this research, the LSNS-6 was used to measure social network size. A high score in the LSNS-6 was taken to signify a larger social network size while a low score meant a smaller social network size. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1989) The RSES measures global self-esteem. The test is composed of 10 items. Responses are given on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree). A sample question is At times I feel like I am no good at all. Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubominsky, and Lepper , 1999) The SHS measures global subjective happiness. The test consists of four items. Responses are given on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-7). A sample question is â€Å"Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going on, getting the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization describe you?†Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ; McCullough, Emmons, and Tsang, 2002) The gratitude questionnaire is a self-report test measuring global gratitude. The test consists of six items. Responses are given on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-stronlgy disagree to 7-strongly agree). A sample item is â€Å"If I had to list everything that I was grateful for, it would be a very long list.†Tendency to Forgive Scale (TTF; Brown, 2002) The TTF is a test measuring global forgiveness tendencies. The test consists of four items. Responses are given on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree). A sample item is â€Å"I tend to get over it quickly when someone hurts my feelings.†Procedure Questionnaires were handed out to all participants in their respective classrooms of Research Method in Psychology at the California State University, Fullerton. Participants were given instructions as a group and were told that participation in this study would be anonymous. It was also stated that they may voluntarily choose to participate and could withdraw at anytime. The whole session took about 15-30 minutes. Participants were provided informed consent prior to the administration of the test and were debriefed after they finished. Results The results showed that individuals’ with a smaller social network size (mean=4.10) were significantly less satisfied compared to those with life larger social network size (mean=5.05; t(89)= -3.79, p.001). There was a noted positive correlation between optimism and satisfaction with life (r = 0.543, p = 0.01). A positive correlation was also found between conscientiousness and satisfaction with life (r = 0.222, p = 0.05) Discussion            The main purpose of this research was to establish whether a relationship existed between satisfaction with life and optimism, and satisfaction with life and conscientiousness. Another purpose was to establish whether social network size made a difference to satisfaction with life. The original hypothesis of the study stated that a significant positive relationship would be found between satisfaction with life and optimism as well as between satisfaction with life and conscientiousness. It was also hypothesized that social network size would not have a significant difference on satisfaction with life. The hypotheses of the present study were based on the findings of past researches. (Quinn et al, 1980; Bowling et al, 1991; Austrom et al, 2003; Chang and Sanna, 2003; Chapman et al, 2007; Lounsbury et al, 2005) The results of the current study show that there is a significantly positive relationship between satisfaction with life and two variables it was compared against, namely, optimism and conscientiousness. Results also showed a significant difference with social network size and satisfaction with life. The initial hypotheses for optimism and conscientiousness were supported. The hypothesis regarding social network size, however, was rejected by the statistical results. The findings on optimism and conscientiousness validate past research findings. These showed that greater optimism in life contributed to greater satisfaction with life (Austrom et al., 2003). Optimism was also found to be a good predictor of life satisfaction (Chang and Sanna, 2003). Past findings established conscientiousness to be a contributing factor to life satisfaction (Lounsbury et al, 2005) as well as a variable directly related to higher quality of life ratings (Chapman et al., 2007). The findings on social network size, on the other hand, disagree with past research findings where social network interaction was not found to be related to life satisfaction (Quinn et al., 1980) and where the size of the individual’s social network was determined to be a bad predictor of life satisfaction (Bowling et al., 1991). Optimism may be able to affect life satisfaction positively due to the fact that a positive outlook on life can also cause a better assessment of past experiences not just of present circumstances. If one is able to achieve a better disposition towards life, the tendency to overlook the negativity that will detract from satisfaction felt towards life will be greater. This shows that the statistical significance of optimism (r=0.543, p=0.01) with satisfaction with life is warranted. Conscientiousness, on the other hand, was also positively correlated to (r=0.035, p=0.05) with satisfaction with life. This may be due to the fact that conscientiousness indicates a better ability to handle life experiences. Conscientiousness, as defined in the Big Five Inventory (Donahue et al., 2001), entails caution, dependability, organization and responsibility. These characteristics when applied to the everyday behavior and experiences of an individual are most likely to indicate an individual who achieves success. People who are more cautious, more dependable, more organized, and more responsible are the ones who are achievers in human society. It may be that the success and achievement linked with conscientious people is also the link that sustains their satisfaction with life. This is not to say that individuals deemed to have low conscientiousness are not likely to feel satisfaction with life. The findings only suggest that a high level of conscientiousness predicts life satisfaction to great extent. The discussion of how social network size is related to satisfaction with life should be done with care. The fact that previous research found no significant difference between social network and life satisfaction may have been due to the inadequacy of measurement with the past research. Quinn et al. (1980), for example, concentrated on the interaction that occurred in social network and not size. This meant that Quinn et al. (1980) focused on the quality of the individual’s social network and not on the quantity. Bowling et al. (1991), on the other hand, compared two different localities and this is what might have caused the inconsistencies in their findings concerning social network size and life satisfaction. Inherent characteristics of urban and rural locations could have played into action and caused the insignificant findings. For the present study, however, the significant difference between social network size and life satisfaction makes sense especially because social network size is also an indicator of an individual’s degree of social interaction as well as sources of social support; both of which are essential in an individual’s development. The findings of this study are limited because of the small sample size used. A bigger sample that is more representative of the general population should be used in future research. In addition, only a few variables concerning satisfaction with life were investigated. Future research should incorporate more variables that may affect life satisfaction into the study. The variables of social support, social interaction, and pessimism are a few of the factors that should be investigated. The significant relationship between social network size and life satisfaction should also be validated by future studies as the results in this study are not in agreement with previous works. The implications of the study are far-reaching. Establishing the relationships existing between life satisfaction, optimism, and conscientiousness allows different clinicians and practitioners in the healthcare system a chance to improve their handling of clients with low satisfaction with life. This may most likely involve older adults. Because satisfaction with life in itself is a concept that health-care workers find hard to deal with, finding other personality traits and variables that are related to it enables these workers an alternative in aiding these types of patients. Increasing optimism and improving conscientiousness in an individual can help to increase their satisfaction with life. In addition, increasing the size of the client’s social network will improve their satisfaction with life. The present study’s findings can also be expanded to teachers in the field of education. Satisfaction of their students can be increased by allowing them to feel more optimistic about their activities also by guiding them to be more conscientious in their behavior. Also, increasing opportunities for students to enlarge their social networks can also help these students improve their feelings of satisfaction with life. References Austrom, M.G., Perkins, A. J., Damush, T. M., Hendrie, H. C. (2003). Predictors of life satisfaction in retired physicians and spouses. Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38, 134-141 Bowling, A., Farquhar, M., Browne, P. (1991). Life satisfaction and associations with social network and support variables in three samples of elderly people. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6, 549-566 Brown, R. (2003). Measuring individual differences in the tendency to forgive: construct validity and links with depression. Society forPersonality and Social Psychology, 29, 759-771 Chang, E.C., Sanna, L. J. (2003). Optimism, accumulated life stress, and psychological and physical adjustment: is it always adaptive to expect the best? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 97-115. Chapman, B., Duberstein, P., Lyness, J. M. (2007). Personality traits, education, and health-related quality of life among older adult primary care patients. Journals of Gerontology: series B psychological sciences and social sciences, 62B, 343-352 Diener, E., Emmons, R., Larsen, R. J., Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75. John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., Kentle, R. (1991). The â€Å"Big Five†Inventory – Versions 4a and 54.  Technical Report, Institute of Personality Assessment and Research, Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley. Lounsbury, J. W., Saudarga, R. A., Gibson, L. W., Leong, F. T. (2005). An investigation of broad and narrow personality traits in relation to general and domain specific live satisfaction of college students. Research in Higher Education,46, 707-729 Lubben, J. E., Gironda, M. W. (2003a). Centrality of social ties to the health and well-being of older adults. In B. Berkman L. K. Harooytan (Eds.), Social work and health care in an aging world (pp. 319-350). New York: Springer Lyubomirsky, S., Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155. Mancini, J. A., Quinn, W., Gavigan, M. A., Franklin, H. (1980). Social network interaction among older adults: implications for life satisfaction. Human Relations, 33, 543-554 McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., Tsang, J. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 112-127. Mitchell, J. C. (1969) The concept and use of social networks. In Social Networks in Urban Situations: Analysis of Personal Relationships in Central African Towns Ed. J.C. Mitchell. Manchester: Manchester University Press Rosenberg, Morris. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image. Revised edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54,1063-1070.
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Impact of Diplomacy on International Security Systems
Impact of Diplomacy on International Security Systems How can diplomacy contribute to the enhancement of security in the International system? Please carry out an in-depth analysis of at least one case study. Diplomacy has gone a long way towards the enhancement of security in the international system and its potential to continue to do so is substantial. Diplomacy has served to diffuse many of the situations where countries’ diametrically opposed viewpoints have posed a threat to world security. Diplomatic actors have learnt lessons and have been able to refine the diplomatic strategies used to manage international security through their involvement in the resolution of situations where security in the international system has been threatened. Take for example the Cuban Missile Crisis, where diplomatic efforts averted a nuclear catastrophe in the height of the Cold War. More recently, multi-lateral diplomatic efforts have diffused the substantial threat posed by the ambitions of the North Koreans to expand their nuclear capabilities. At the time of writing, diplomatic efforts are fervently attempting to resolve the growing threat of military strikes against Iran. In can be argued therefore, that in the face of globalisation, the security of the world is increasingly linked to reliable systems of communication and trust between nation states; systems which are sustained through diplomacy. This is not to say that diplomacy is an infallible tool which can be used to enhance security at international level. One only has to look at the failure of diplomatic efforts to avert the war in Iraq, the continued negotiations between Israel and the PLO and those diplomatic efforts which failed to resolve the tension in the Balkans before civil war erupted in order to evidence this viewpoint. However, when considered in overall terms diplomacy has made great inroads in the enhancement of security internationally and has the potential to continue to do so. Perhaps it can be argued that diplomacy is not always a reactionary method of averting crisis; it has an all important role in increasing global security in a pre-emptive way as well. Therefore, diplomacy when understood ‘in the round’ is the lifeblood of any system of trust and communication which is intended to enhance security in the international system, and diplomacy therefore contributes greatly to the enhanceme nt of security in the international system. To understand diplomacy and how it contributes to the enhancement of security in the international system, it is perhaps wise to ask the following questions: what is the exact definition of diplomacy?; what is the exact definition of security?; and; how exactly does diplomacy enhance security in the international system? These questions will be addressed during the course of this essay. Also, in terms of analysing how exactly diplomacy can enhance security in the international system it is perhaps useful to explain the role of agencies and alliances like to IAEA, NATO, the EU, the United Nations and the Security Council which promote the enhancement of security internationally by relying on diplomatic efforts. These agencies will be looked at, and their roles will be explained during the course of the essay. Most importantly however are the theoretical underpinnings of why and how diplomacy functions, and these will be addressed in the essay. The theories of Realism and Neo-Realism w ill be examined in the context of diplomacy and security enhancement in an international context as they are useful springboards to help explain the concept of diplomacy and human interaction at the most basic of levels. A case study will be looked at in the essay and it will be explained in relation to the above mentioned issues. The subject of the case study will be North Korea and the diplomatic efforts that have served to avert what was potentially a nuclear crisis. As Fierke (2005) observes, diplomacy can be described as negotiation in an international setting that is often conducted by a mediator who acts as a go-between between the actors seeking to reach agreement. Diplomacy requires subtle and sophisticated communication strategies as well as statesmanship and a good understanding of public affairs. Security is the state of being free from injury and immediate danger. Most situations which pose a threat to international security and which call for diplomatic efforts require ad hoc responses at differing levels from those best equipped and best positioned to intervene diplomatically. No country would find it easy to achieve diplomatic objectives alone, and this fact is evidenced by the existence and the successes of international agencies and alliances which promote diplomatic relations and interventions. The agencies often have common objectives and often act together in order to achieve these. The International Atomic Energy Agency exists to scrutinise the security threats that may be posed by countries who wish to advance their nuclear weapons programs. It has a supervisory as well as a diplomatic function. The European Union, first established to promote economic stability in Western European Countries, has expanded to serve an increasingly diplomatic function. Alliances like the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) have more peace-keeping responsibilities and are frequently called upon to preserve peace, so that diplomatic efforts can continue in situations of political and military instability. The United Nations and the Security Council have perhaps the most significant roles, when compared to the rest of these agencies. These organisations were formed to engender peace and diplomacy in a global context, and they have particular powers for example, the power to impose sanctions on those countries that are considered to be posing a threat to international security. The diplomatic deployment of these agencies can contribute and has contributed to the enhancement of security in the international system. However, to fully understand the function of diplomacy and how it can enhance security in the international system, it is useful to take a speculative look at how the world might work in the absence of diplomacy. A good place to start in this endeavour is perhaps to examine the theories of Realism and Neo-Realism and how they relate to the ideas of international security and diplomacy. Realism and Neo-Realism are discourses which seek to explain how power in the context of international relations may be seen through the lens of human propensity. They may help one to rationalise diplomacy as they seek to explain human nature and how this idea influences the accrual and preservation of power in the international system. Machiavellian adages such as ‘better feared than loved’ explain the classical realists’ viewpoint that power is, simply, the prize of those who inspire fear in others most effectively[i]. Morgenthau, a classical realist suggested that: i)International relations is propelled by a set of objective, rational laws that reflect unchanging human nature; ii)Interest is ‘defined in terms of power’ and therefore international politics must be understood as operating outside the spheres of moral and ethical concerns; iii)The definition of interest in terms of power is universally true and remains a consistent point of reference which can be used to understand events in international politics; iv)National interest takes precedence over moral concerns, and therefore states are permitted to act rationally, at all times in order to protect national interests; v)States try to behave morally. However, immoral actions can be pursued in the national interest; vi) Political considerations must be understood singularly, as a primary concern, because interest is defined in terms of power. The theory of Realism therefore regards power as a dynamic that cannot exist independently of human characteristics such as selfishness and competitiveness. Realists would also argue that power must be relinquished if one pursues a course of action which does not involve behaving selfishly, competitively and ruthlessly. Therefore, a realist would argue that diplomacy cannot contribute to the enhancement of security in the international system as the theory of Realism assumes that the pursuit of diplomacy is not only axiomatic to the effective accrual of power, but sees benevolence and diplomacy as both pointless and naive. Neo-Realism on the other hand has a more sophisticated view of how diplomacy can contribute to the enhancement of security in the international system. It has evolved as a more contemporary, more widely accepted rationale and explains power and international security by focusing more on the role of international states in politics, than on the role of human nature. Neo-Realism explains the distribution of power internationally in terms of anarchy, and the absence of centralised authority structures. In the absence of these central authority structures, international actors are forced to follow a route of self preservation which involves behaving competitively, and involves using diplomatic skills like co-operation if these serve to augment their security relative to other states. Therefore when North Korea announced that it intended to withdraw from the thirty-two year old nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 2003, neo-realist diplomacy is largely what led to their recent announ cement that they would cease their nuclear proliferation objectives in exchange for compensation. The North Koreans have also stated that is it important to maintain a good relationship with the United States. However, how has this diplomatic success story enhanced security in the international system? The answer is that diplomacy enhances security in the international system by identifying and building channels of communication with extremist regimes and other international actors who could pose a potential threat to international security. International security is enhanced by identifying what the best ways to communicate with these actors are. Evidence to support this viewpoint can be seen by again turning to look at the situation in North Korea. North Korea has long been an insular regime, devoted to the rejection of Western values and traditions. George W Bush has even identified North Korea as being part of the ‘axis of evil’ described in a now famous speech about the ‘war on terror’. However, Western diplomacy and communication with North Korea is not something that came about simply to resolve the 2003 nuclear crisis. Diplomacy has been a long running strategy between North Korea and the West. For example, the diplomatic efforts that helped to diff use the historical long running tension between North and South Korea have created the diplomatic bedrock which was capitalised upon when the 2003 North Korean nuclear crisis emerged. The multi-lateral discussions that led to the eventual resolution of the crisis involved Japan and South Korea; countries that the West has spent years building diplomatic channels of communication with. It is important therefore to understand that diplomacy is not just about communication strategies or strategies that come into play as a reaction to a crisis; diplomacy is about the forming and preserving of relationships and the building of trust and co-operation between international states. It is only when diplomacy is understood in this context that the writer’s argument that diplomacy can contribute to the enhancement of security in the international system gains credibility. To conclude, it has been argued in this essay that diplomacy can contribute in many ways to the enhancement of security in the international system. Past diplomatic initiatives and past diplomatic successes have been examined and extrapolated in support of this argument. North Korea has been used as a case study to illustrate the writer’s argument. The theoretical relationships between diplomacy, power, international security and human nature have been examined in depth by looking at the theories of Realism and Neo-Realism, and this helped to explain the growing importance of sophisticated diplomatic strategies in enhancing security in the international system. Most importantly this emphasis served to explain and illustrate the many ways in which diplomacy can contribute to the enhancement of security in the international system. Bibliography Books: Buzan, B, Jones, C, Little, R. The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism. Columbia University Press, New York. 1993. Chang, G. Nuclear Showdown: North Korea takes on the World. Hutchinson. 2006. Fierke, K. Diplomatic Interventions. Palgrave Macmillan. 2005. Griffiths, M. Realism, Idealism, and International Politics: A Reinterpretation. Routledge, New York. 1992. Articles: Bellamy, A . Globalisation, Security and International Order after 11 September. Beeson, M, The Australian Journal of Politics and History. Volume 49. Issue 3. 2003. p339+. Falk, R. The Pursuit of International Justice: Present Dilemmas and an Imagined Future. Journal of International Affairs. Volume 52. Issue 2. 1999. p409+. Genest, M. Realism and the Problem of Peaceful Change. Perspectives on Political Science. Volume 23. Issue 2. 1994. p70+. Greenberg, J. Does Power Trump Law?. Stanford Law Review. Volume 55. Issue 5. 2003. p1789+. Heady, F. Comparative and International Public Administration: Building Intellectual Bridges. Public Administration Review. Volume 58. Issue 1. 1998. p32+. Lieb, D. The Limits of Neorealism: Marginal States and International Relations Theory. Harvard International Review, Volume 26, 2004. Newmann, W. Causes of Change in National Security Processes: Carter, Reagan, and Bush Decision Making on Arms Control. Presidential Studies Quarterly. Volume 31. Issue 1. 2001. p69. Watson, B. The Politics of Confusion in International Relations Theory. Perspectives on Political Science. Volume 25. Issue 1. 1996. p6+. Zumbrunnen, J. Courage in the Face of Reality: Nietzsches Admiration for Thucydides. Polity. Volume 35. Issue 2. 2002. p237+. Newspaper and Magazine Articles: Freedman, L. International Security: Changing Targets. Foreign Policy. Issue 110. Spring 1998. p48+. Shuja, S. The Historical Myopia of International Relations. Contemporary Review. Volume 278. Issue 1620. January 2001. p18. Waller, J. National Security. Insight on the News. Volume 15. Issue 39. October 25, 1999. p10. 1 [i] Aristotle’s definition of legal rationality as ‘reason free from passion’ also conveys the realist’s vision of morality and rationality as distinct spheres, which too, is a predicate of Realism.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Video-psychology-past, Present Essay -- essays research papers
Past, Present, and Promise      'Past, Present, and Promise'; is the first volume in the twenty-six volume set. The video begins by introducing the series and going over basic definitions such as the definition of psychology. The video continues on by giving an example of a disorder that psychologists may work with- multiple personality disorder. A woman who has an extreme case of this disorder is introduced. At times she believes she is a scared seven year old girl named Carol, and at other times she has a coarse personality of a man named Devan. After describing the characteristics the host explains how this disorder is usually caused by childhood traumatic/sadistic experiences and is used to mask emotions.      In introducing behavior, the video shows several clips from Candid Camera back in the 50s. Junior High boys and girls have conferences with their new teacher who is either a handsome man or an attractive woman, pairing the boys with the woman and the girls with the man. Once the teacher walks away both the girls and boys either break out into laughter or smile embarrassingly. Why did they act this way? The video states that two factors affect personality: dispositional and situational. Dispositional factors are those that are a part of us and internal such as genetics, attitude, and personality. Situational factors are those that come from the environment such as sensory stimulation, rewards, and punishments. ...
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Evolution of Management Essay -- essays research papers
Over the past hundred years management has continuously been evolving. There have been a wide range of approaches in how to deal with management or better yet how to improve management functions in our ever changing environment. From as early as 1100 B.C managers have been struggling with the same issues and problems that manager’s face today. Modern managers use many of the practices, principles, and techniques developed from earlier concepts and experiences. The evolution of management though the decades can be divided into two major sections. One of the sections is the classical approach. Under the classical approach efficiency and productivity became a critical concern of the managers at the turn of the 20th century. One of the approaches from the classical time period were systematic management which placed more emphasis on internal operations because managers were concerned with meeting the growth in demand brought on by the Industrial revolution. As a result managers became more concerned with physical things than towards the people therefore systematic management failed to lead to production efficiency. This became apparent to an engineer named Frederick Taylor who was the father of Scientific Management. Scientific Management was identified by four principles for which management should develop the best way to do a job, determine the optimum work pace, train people to do the job properly, and reward successful performance by using an incentive pay system. Scientifi...
Monday, September 2, 2019
The Cause Of The Civil War: Eli Whitneys Cotton Gin Essay -- essays re
During the period between 1790 and 1850, the United States was rapidly changing. It was now a separate country with its own economy, laws, and government. The country was learning to live on its own, apart from England. There began to appear a rift between North and South. The North believing in the Puritan Merchant role model, and the South in the role model of the English Country Squire. The North traded with everyone, while the South traded primarily with England. The major crop in the South was tobacco, and because of the decline in the price of tobacco the slave trade was dying, just as those in the North hoped it would. Then came a man, and an invention, which changed the course of history. In 1792, Eli Whitney visited the plantation of Catherine Greene, the wife of Revolutionary War general, Nathaniel Greene, near Savannah Georgia. He watched cotton being cleaned; a very long and time consuming process to do by hand. Watching the cotton being cleaned an idea came to Whitney. He decided he would build a machine that would clean cotton faster than it could be done by hand. Thus, he created the cotton gin.      This invention changed the way the South functioned, and the ripple effect it created changed the course of history forever. The ripple effect caused by Eli Whitney’s cotton gin can be seen as the driving force behind many of the conflicts between North and South, and eventually culminating in the Civil War. Before Eli Whitney’s invention, slavery was dying in the South. The price of tobacco had plummeted, and planters were freeing slaves because of the high cost of feeding, housing and clothing them. When Eli Whitney introduced his invention the cotton market exploded. Cotton began to be grown in enormous quantities because it was good for making clothes, and with the invention of the cotton gin easier to produce. This explosion in the growth of the cotton market rejuvenated the slave trade. This time, though, the slave trade was not between the U.S. and Africa, but instead between the Old South, and the New South. The Old South began to â€Å"bree d†slaves to sell to the cotton farmers in the New South. These farmers needed large numbers of slaves because once the cotton was ripe, it needed to be picked quickly. The price of slaves skyrocketed, and this new crop ensured the practice of slavery would continue. This continuati... ...in slavery breathing new life into the South, and in the country economy as a whole. With this rejuvenation came problems between North and South over moral differences. These differences created a rift that widened until sectionalism overtook nationalism. This rift was temporarily closed several times but ultimately the differences between North and South were so ingrained in their respective culture that it took a war to change. The wide and far-reaching effects of this event can be viewed as a pond, the country, when a pebble is thrown into it the ripples become larger and larger until they come in contact with something that can stop them. As the proverb says, â€Å"A butterfly that flaps its wings in China can cause a hurricane in Kansas.†Bibliography Eli Whitney Museum. Organization Page. 3 December 2000      Green, Constance. Eli Whitney and the Birth of American Technology. Harper-Collins College Division, 1995. Hays, Wilma Pitchford. Eli Whitney and the Machine Age. Franklin Watts, 1959. Wilson, Mitchell. American Science and Invention: A Pictoral History. Simon and Shuster, New York, 1954.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Education in the Classroom, or in the Real World
Oscar Wilde and Lord Brougham have different ideas about the education system. Wilde states â€Å"Education is an admirable thing, but it is well to remember from time to time that nothing that is worth knowing can be taught. †This means that education does not teach a person every thing they need to know, a person learns from doing things outside of school. Lord Brougham says â€Å"Education makes a people easy to lead, but difficult to drive; easy to govern but impossible to enslave. †This means Brougham sees education as the tool, which creates free thinkers. Wilde has a better idea about education because he seems to believe that there are many ways to learn things. People are not taught in school how to deal with accidents, how to be trusted, and how to be a good friend to someone. Accidents are unexpected happenings that can be caused by chance. Accidents happen in many different ways and different places. Dealing with an accident isn't something that teachers explain it is something that a person learns first hand. When a person is in an accident there is a lot to deal with. Depending on the type of accident. For example I was in an accident, my truck rolled. The first thing I had to deal with is talking to the police officer. Dealing with the police is scary no matter what the situation is, not to mention a near death situation. The cop went over what happened, who was driving and of course who was drinking. After that was established the next thing to deal with was dad. A parental unit is hard to explain something like this to. There isn†t a teacher who can teach a student how to explain to their father that they just rolled their pick up. Some parents are very strict and not very understanding, and some parents are easy going and don't care. It would be hard for teachers to know what kind of an accident the student was in, and what the student is feeling after the accident therefore it would be hard to teach the student how to deal with an accident they just have to learn it for themselves. There is no teacher that can tech a person thing that are learn by being taught. People have to earn some ones trust they just don†t automatically trust some one. Teachers can't say their looks like a good person, they have on nice clothes, and they can be trusted. It don't work that way, trust has to be built. It can be built by returning something someone dropped or by listening when a friend is having a bad day, and not turning around blabbing what she just said. Sharing secrets helps build trust. A person has to learn who they can and can't trust, sometimes they may get burned and hurt, when they tell a secret and go to school the next day to find out the whole school body knows what the little secret was. They learned that they couldn†t trust that person, even if that person was dressed in nice clothes, and looked like a good person. Sharing secrets and knowing who that person is build trust. No teacher can tech a person to trust anyone they don't know. To be a good friend a person has to be there to listen to problems. Not only listening but willing to give advice. The old saying â€Å"If all your friends jumped off a cliff would you? †A true friend would say no, because they would be at the bottom, to catch their friends. A true friend would get up in the middle of the night to listen a dream that just couldn't wait until tomorrow. Teachers can't teach a person how to be a good friend or for that matter, teachers can't teach you how to be a good friend. If a person cares about another person they can be friends because they will be will to go out of their way to help the other person. If people didn't care about people they wouldn't help each other out, and they wouldn't be friends. People can be nice to people but that don't make them friends. Teachers can teach people how to be nice to people, also called manners. Friends are something that just comes natural. To know and to learn are two different things. Know how to wreak a truck or to wreak a friendship can only be taught by them. No teacher can tech a person how to roll a truck or how to gain the trust of a good friend. Only a person can tech them selves and still learn by the mistakes that where given, during the time that a person was taught.
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